遺傳學
編輯歷史
| 時間 | 作者 | 版本 |
|---|---|---|
| 2019-07-11 12:49 – 13:29 | r3423 – r3537 | |
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經過減數分裂產生配子→受精產生合子→經有絲分裂發育成多細胞
2.植物或藻類 alternation of generation
- sporophyte(孢子體)經過減數分裂產生Spores(孢子，n)→經有絲分裂產生gametophyte(配子體，n，多細胞)→有絲分裂產生配子→兩個配子結合，產生2n的合子→合子經有絲分裂產生孢子體
+ sporophyte(孢子體)經過減數分裂產生Spores(孢子，n)→經有絲分裂產生gametophyte(pollen grain配子體，n，多細胞)→有絲分裂產生配子→兩個配子結合，產生2n的合子→合子經有絲分裂產生孢子體
3.真菌或原生生物
配子結合後，形成2n的合子→合子並沒有直接發育，而是進行減數分裂，產生單細胞或多細胞的n→進一步進行有絲分裂，產生的細胞會發育成配子
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-同源染色體的兩個分體，會被接在其中一極的著絲點微管上
-另外一組同源染色體的分體，則會接在另一極的微管上
+ *核型通常呈現的是中期的染色體
Anaphase I(後期I) :同源染色體分離
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Life’s operating Instructions
16.1 DNA is the genetic material
- The Search for the Genetic Material: Scientific Inquiry
- Additional Evidence That DNA Is the Genetic Material
+ T遺傳物質
+ 細菌的S strain會對老鼠致病，因為該細胞帶有外膜，使它們不受老鼠的免疫系統影響，而R strain不會致病
+ Griffith將S strain加熱後，加入正常的R strain→會導致老鼠死亡
+ *因為S strain中帶有某種物質，使得R strain被轉化為致病菌株
+ *transformation:由於細胞對外部DNA的同化，使基因型和表型發生了變化A嗜菌體
+
+
+ dditional Evidence That DNA Is the Genetic Material
Building a Structural Model of DNA: Scientific Inquiry
+
+ transformation
16.2 Many proteins work together
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| 2019-07-11 07:02 – 11:41 | r587 – r3422 | |
顯示 diff 遺傳學
- 生命週期和有絲分裂
- Variations on a theme
- 13.1 Offspring acquire genes from
- parents by inheriting chromosomes
- Inheritance of Genes
- Comparison of Asexual and Sexual Reproduction
+ 生命週期和減數分裂
+ 子代從親代遺傳染色體，得到基因
+ gamete(配子)是帶著基因到下一代的載體
+ locus(基因座、基因位點):染色體上的固定位置，例如某個基因的所在，而基因座上DNA的各種變化形式，稱為allele(等位基因)
- 13.2 Fertilization and meiosis alternate
- in sexual life cycles
- Sets of Chromosomes in Human Cells
- Behavior of Chromosome Sets in the Human Life Cycle
- The Variety of Sexual Life Cycles
+ 無性生殖和有性生殖
+ 無性:例如hydra(水螅)的出芽生殖
+ *bud:metosis(有絲分裂)細胞的局部，會發展成一個小的水螅，之後脫離母體
- 13.3 Meiosis reduces the number
- of chromosome sets from
- diploid to haploid
- The Stages of Meiosis
- Crossing Over and Synapsis During Prophase I
- A Comparison of Mitosis and Meiosis
- 13.4 Genetic variation produced in
- sexual life cycles contributes
- to evolution
- Origins of Genetic Variation Among Offspring
- *Independent Assortment of Chromosomes
- *Crossing Over
- *Random Fertilization
- The Evolutionary Significance of Genetic Variation Within Populations
-
+ sexual life cycle:受精和meiosis(減數分裂)交替進行
+ 在減數分裂期間，染色體的套會減半，但在受精時又增加一倍
+ 父親和母親分別減數分裂產生配子(n=23)→配子經過受精後，產生zygote(合子，2n=46)→合子經過有絲分裂產生體細胞，並發育
+ *fertilization:配子細胞核的結合，產生的受精卵又稱為合子
- 孟德爾遺傳
- Drawing from the Deck of Genes
- 14.1Mendel used the scientific
- approach to identify two
- laws of inheritance
- Mendel’s Experimental, Quantitative Approach
- The Law of Segregation
- *Mendel’s Model
- *Useful Genetic Vocabulary
- *The Testcross
- The Law of Independent Assortment
+
+ *life cycle(從受孕到生產)
+ karyotype(核型) 長度、centromere(著絲粒)位置和染色模式都一樣的染色體，會被排在一起，稱為同源染色體，從最長的染色體依序排下去
+ *同源染色體控制一樣的性狀
+ 性染色體
+ 人體有22對體染色體
+ 2n=46:有兩套，一套所含的染色體數是23
+ *姊妹染色分體:複製後、長度差不多的一對染色分體→sister chromatid cohesion
+ *同源染色體指的是不同set之間，例如:分別來自父親和母親
+
+
+
+ 三種sexual life cycle(都是精卵結合和減數分裂的交替，造成遺傳變異，差在事件進行的時間)
+ 1.動物 產生配子後，在受精前，不再會有細胞分裂
+ 經過減數分裂產生配子→受精產生合子→經有絲分裂發育成多細胞
+ 2.植物或藻類 alternation of generation
+ sporophyte(孢子體)經過減數分裂產生Spores(孢子，n)→經有絲分裂產生gametophyte(配子體，n，多細胞)→有絲分裂產生配子→兩個配子結合，產生2n的合子→合子經有絲分裂產生孢子體
+ 3.真菌或原生生物
+ 配子結合後，形成2n的合子→合子並沒有直接發育，而是進行減數分裂，產生單細胞或多細胞的n→進一步進行有絲分裂，產生的細胞會發育成配子
+ *只有2n可以進行減數分裂
+ *有絲分裂產生2個子細胞，減數分裂產生4個子細胞
+
+
+
+
+ 減數分裂分兩期(總共分裂兩次)
+ interphase(間期):染色體複製成2n
+ 第一期 同源染色體分離(等位基因分離)
+ n，兩個細胞
+ Prophase I(前期I)
+ -centrosome(中心體)移動
+ -spindle(紡錘體)形成
+ -核封套破裂*有絲分裂也會
+ *染色體在整個前期逐漸濃縮
+
+ *在前期I的早期、上述階段之前，每個染色體會基因對基因、與其同源物配對，並且發生crossing over(互換)：非姊妹染色分體會被破壞，並重新結合
+ *chiasmata(交叉):形成於一對同源染色體之間，是發生互換的位置
+ -在前期I的後來，來自其中一極的microtubule(微管)會附著在kinetochore(著絲點)上，另一極的則會附著在每個同源物的centomere(中節)上
+ *姊妹分體上的兩個著絲點，會被蛋白接在一起，所以看起來只有一個
+ -微管將同源對移向中期板
+
+ Metaphase I(中期I):染色體以同源對為基準，排排站
+ -成對的同源染色體被排在中期板，各自面對著其中一極
+ -同源染色體的兩個分體，會被接在其中一極的著絲點微管上
+ -另外一組同源染色體的分體，則會接在另一極的微管上
+
+ Anaphase I(後期I) :同源染色體分離
+ -沿著染色單體的arm、負責黏著姊妹分體，幫助同源體分離的蛋白，會被分解
+ -同源染色體，在紡錘體的引導下，往相反的極移動
+ -姊妹分體再中節的的cohesion仍然存在，使其成為一個單位，往同一極移動
+
+ Telophase I(末期I)和Cytokinesis(Cytokinesis):形成兩個n的細胞
+ -每個染色體仍然具有兩個姊妹分體
+ -細胞的每一半都有完整的單套、複製的染色體
+ -每條染色體都由兩個姊妹分體所組成
+ -具有一個或是兩個包含非姊妹分體的染色體
+ -Cleavage furrow(卵裂溝)
+
+ 第二期 姊妹染色體分離
+ n，四個細胞
+
+ Prophase II
+ -形成紡錘體
+ -較晚的時候，被centromere(中節)連接的染色分體，會被微管移往中期II的中期板
+
+ Metaphase II
+ -染色體如同有絲分裂，被放在中期板
+ -因為有絲分裂第一期發生的互換，兩個姐妹染色分體並不帶有一樣的遺傳訊息
+ -姊妹染色體的著絲點被附著在不同極的微管
+ Anaphase II
+ -分解固定姊妹分體的蛋白質(cohesin)
+ -姊妹染色體正式移向不同極
- 14.2 Probability laws govern
- Mendelian inheritance
- The Multiplication and Addition Rules Applied to Monohybrid Crosses
- Solving Complex Genetics Problems with the Rules of Probability
+ Telophase II(末期II)和Cytokinesis(細胞質分裂):
+ -細胞核形成
+ -染色體去濃縮
+ -細胞質分裂
- 14.3 Inheritance patterns are often
- more complex than predicted
- by simple Mendelian genetics
- Extending Mendelian Genetics for a Single Gene
- *Degrees of Dominance
- *The Relationship Between Dominance and Phenotype
- *Frequency of Dominant Alleles
- *Multiple Alleles
- *Pleiotropy
- Extending Mendelian Genetics for Two or More Gene
- *Epistasis
- *Polygenic Inheritance
- Nature and Nurture: The Environmental Impact on Phenotype
- A Mendelian View of Heredity and Variation
+
+ 互換和synapsis(聯會)
+ -發生在前期I
+ -在間期之後，染色體已被複製，姊妹分體被cohesin拉在一起
+ -兩個非姊妹分體，會在幾乎同樣的位置斷裂
+ -染色體開始濃縮
+ →拉鏈狀的聯會複合體開始形成，將同源染色體拉在一起，染色體持續濃縮
+ →聯會複合體已完全形成，此時的同源染色體，被稱為處於聯會
+ →先前的DNA斷裂，可能會接上，在chiasmata發生互換
+ →在聯會複合體被拆掉後，同源染色體稍微分開，不過因為姊妹分體的cohesion仍然存在，還是保持附著
+ →染色體一邊濃縮，一邊往中期I的中期板移動
+ →cohesin被分解，同源體和組合染色體會分離→最後的子細胞中，會出現組合染色體
+
+ 比較有絲分裂和減數分裂
+ -兩個產生的子細胞數目不同
+ 只有減數分裂會發生
+ -聯會和互換 prophase I
+ -同源染色體成對地排列在中期板 metaphase I
+ *有絲分裂中，染色體是一個個獨立排列在中期板
+ -同源染色體的分離 anaphase I
+ *有絲分裂的anaphase時，姊妹分體會分離
+ <共通點>
+ -兩個都在間期發生複製，減數分裂只複製一次
+
+ 遺傳變異的來源: 獨立分配律、互換、配子隨機結合
+ *獨立分配律 在中期時，非同源染色體被分到不同細胞的機率為獨立事件，互不干擾
+ *互換
+ *配子隨機結合
+
+
+ 孟德爾遺傳
+ 孟德爾利用豌豆，提出等位基因的觀念，一個性狀由兩個等位基因決定
+ *試交 待測的個體與表現型為隱性的個體交配
+ *互交 互換親代性別
+ *雜交 針對某表現型，以不同表徵（對偶性狀）的個體進行交配。例如黃色豌豆與綠色豌豆的交配
+ *純品系自花授粉好幾代，每一代都和親代出現同樣的性狀，即決定某一種性狀的基因型為同型合子
+ *phenotype(表型)和genotype(基因型)
+
+ 兩個遺傳法則 與機率有關
+ 1.分離律 根據一對因子雜交得到
+ (1)生物的遺傳性狀由基因所控制，其等位基因有兩種:顯性和隱性
+ (2)個體內控制一種性狀的基因，是兩個成對存在，也就是同源染色體。當形成配子時，同源染色體會互相分離至配子中
+ (3)當顯性基因和隱性基因相遇時，只有顯性性狀才能表現出來
+ *可用Punnett square表示
+ 2.獨立分配律 根據二對因子雜交得到
+ (1)形成配子時，一對基因的分離，對另一對基因的分離沒有影響
+ (2)形成配子時，非等位基因間會互相組合而同至一配子中
- *
+ 不遵守孟德爾遺傳定律的例子
+ 1.dominance的程度:不是完全顯性和隱性
+ 例如:紅花和白花產生粉紅花→incomplete dominance
+ 例如:人類血型→codominance(共顯性)
+ *ABO血型的等位基因，帶有特定碳氫化合物的編碼，以致於O型血球上沒有碳氫化合物
+ pleiotropy
+ -在不同生命層級，dominance的程度可能不同
+ 例如Tay-Sachs disease(戴薩克斯症，不能代謝特定脂質，脂肪的堆積會導致失明等症狀)
+ -顯性族群不一定比隱性多
+ -pleiotropy(基因多效性) 單一個基因，可能決定多種性狀
+ 2.多於兩個等位基因
+ -epistasis(上位效應) 其中一個基因座的表現，會影響另一個基因座
+ -polygenic inheritance(多基因遺傳) quantitative character
+ *性狀的決定是multifactorial(多因子的)，除了先天因素，後天也影響很大，例如繡球花的顏色與酸鹼的關係
+ Pedigree Analysis(系譜分析):追蹤某一特定性狀
+ 1.先判斷顯隱性(父母沒得病，小孩卻得病，代表是顯性)
+ *因為如果是隱性疾病，且父母雙方都帶有隱性，其所產生的所有子代應該都要得病
- 14.4 Many human traits follow
- Mendelian patterns of
- inheritance
- Pedigree Analysis
- Recessively Inherited Disorders
+
+ 體染色體遺傳－性染色體遺傳
+ 隱性遺傳疾病
*The Behavior of Recessive Alleles
- *Cystic Fibrosis
- *Sickle-Cell Disease: A Genetic Disorder with Evolutionary Implications
- Dominantly Inherited Disorders
- Multifactorial Disorders
- Genetic Testing and Counseling
- * Counseling Based on Mendelian Genetics and Probability Rules
- *Tests for Identifying Carriers
- *Fetal Testing
- *Newborn Screening
- *
+ *Cystic Fibrosis(囊狀纖維化)
+ *鐮刀型紅血球:只有在血氧濃度很低的時候，carrier才會被影響，因為它有一半正常的血紅蛋白
+ **carrier的malaria症狀較少
+ 顯性遺傳疾病
+ *Achondroplasia(軟骨發育不全=侏儒症)，等位基因是D和d
+ *亨丁頓舞蹈症
+ 多因子疾病，例如心臟病、糖尿病、癌症等
+ 基因檢測
+ amniocentesis(羊膜穿刺術):懷孕15週後，可從羊水取樣→將樣本離心→放置數小時後，可直接做生化檢測，或將細胞培養數週後，再進行核型檢測
+ chorionic villus sampling (CVS絨毛取樣術):懷孕10週後，可以使用管子刺入cervix(子宮頸)，從絨毛膜絨毛取樣→樣本可立即用作生化或核型檢測
+
+
染色體作為遺傳物質
- Locating Genes Along Chromosomes
- 15.1Morgan showed that Mendelian
- inheritance has its physical basis
- in the behavior of chromosomes:
- scientific inquiry
- Morgan’s Choice of Experimental Organism
- Correlating Behavior of a Gene’s Alleles with Behavior of a Chromosome Pair
+ chromosome theory of inheritance(染色體遺傳學說)
+ -Boveri和Sutton在各別的研究中得到相同的結論
+ -他們認為染色體在細胞分裂中的行為與孟德爾的遺傳因子有關
+ -1. 兩者在體細胞中都成對存在,在生殖細胞中則是單獨存在的
+ -2. 成對的染色體在細胞減數分裂時彼此分離,進入不同的子細胞中,不同對染色體或遺傳因子可以自由組合
+ Morgan選擇果蠅
+ 結論 決定眼睛和性別的基因，是綁在一起的
+ 性聯遺傳
- 15.2 Sex-linked genes exhibit unique
- patterns of inheritance
- The Chromosomal Basis of Sex
- Inheritance of X-Linked Genes
- X Inactivation in Female Mammals
- 15.3 Linked genes tend to be inherited
- together because they are located
- near each other on the same
- chromosome
- How Linkage Affects Inheritance
- Genetic Recombination and Linkage
- *Recombination of Unlinked Genes: Independent Assortment of Chromosomes
- *Recombination of Linked Genes: Crossing Over
- *New Combinations of Alleles: Variation for Natural Selection
- Mapping the Distance Between Genes Using Recombination Data: Scientific Inquiry
- *
+ 4種性別決定系統
+ 1.X-Y
+ 2.X-
+ ，有XX(雄)和X(雌)兩種，如:蚱蜢、蟑螂和其他昆蟲3.
+ Z-W，有ZW(雌)和ZZ(雄)，如:鳥類、魚類、昆蟲類4.
+ 單倍體-多倍體，沒有性染色體，雄性從單倍體的未受精卵中誕生，例如:蜜蜂和螞蟻
- 15.4 Alterations of chromosome
- number or structure cause some
- genetic disorders
- Abnormal Chromosome number
- Alterations of Chromosome Structure
- Human Disorders Due to Chromosomal Alterations
- *Down Syndrome (Trisomy 21)
- *Aneuploidy of Sex Chromosomes
- *Disorders Caused by Structurally Altered Chromosomes
- *
- *
+ X聯疾病，例如Duchenne muscular dystrophy(肌肉營養不良症)、色盲(X聯隱性)、血友病(X聯隱性)
+ *男性只要X上有該基因，就會得病，女性必須要有兩個隱性基因
+ X染色體去活化
+ 雌性哺乳類細胞中兩條X染色體的其中之一失去活性的現象
+ -使雌性不會因為擁有兩個X染色體而產生兩倍的基因產物，因此可以像雄性般只表現一個X染色體上的基因
+ Barr body(巴氏體)
+ -失活的X染色體會在細胞核內形成一種構造上不連續的巴爾氏體，因為分布於細胞核的邊緣地帶，在細胞週期中將會較晚被複製
+ 例如三花貓，雌性的兩個X同源染色體，分別帶有決定橘毛根黑毛的基因，去活化現象會隨機選擇顏色
- 15.5 Some inheritance patterns are
- exceptions to standard Mendelian
- inheritance
- Genomic Imprinting
- Inheritance of Organelle Genes
-
- 核酸
+ 連鎖基因，因為位置接近，傾向一起被遺傳
+ -果蠅的體色和大小
+ genetic map
+ linkage map(遺傳圖):顯示基因在染色體上的相對位置
+ -根據recombination frequencies(重組頻率)*R
+ 染色體數目異常
+ meiotic nondisjunction(染色體不分離):無論發生在第一期或第二期，都會造成配子中，染色體數目的異常
+ *染色體不分離的現象，發生在Anaphase I，有最高機率的會產生異常染色體數目的配子。因為第一次減數分裂若發生染色體不分離，所產生的子細胞都是異常染色體數目，而第二次減數分裂若發生染色體不分離，只有50%的子細胞為異常染色體數目A*aneuploidy(非整倍體):異常配子與正常配子結合
+ *monosomic=2n-1
+ *trisomic=2n+1A
+ 染色體結構異常
+ 刪除
+ ABC"D"E/FGH→ABCE/FGH
+ 複製
+ A"BC"DE/FGH→A"BCBC"DE/FGH
+ 倒轉
+ A"BCD"E/FGH→A"DCB"E/FGH
+ 易位
+ 將部分轉移到非同源染色體
+ *reciprocal translocation:易位的其中一種，非同源染色體間會互相交換片段
+ *nonreciprocal:不會互相交換，只有其中一方會給出
+
+ 與染色體異常相關的疾病H*唐氏症Trisomy 21) :染色體21多一條，導致總共有47條染色體**Philadelphia chromosome(費城染色體)易位，導致CML
+ **細胞的9號染色體長臂與22號染色體長臂進行相互易位
+
+
+ 1有些遺傳模式不遵守孟澤爾遺傳
+ enomic Imprinting
+ (基因銘印):只有來自特定親代的基因得以表達
+ -例如一種製造類胰島素的生長因子IGF-2的基因，只有來自父親的等位基因能夠表現
+ *因為來自母親的IGF-2基因不表達，所以就算發生突變，也不影響個體大小
+ -發生在配子形成時，導致特定基因的沉默
+ 核酸
Life’s operating Instructions
16.1 DNA is the genetic material
（157 行未修改）
DNA技術
- the DnA toolbox
-
-
-
- 19.1 DNA sequencing and DNA
- cloning are valuable tools
- for genetic engineering
- and biological inquiry
- DNA Sequencing
- Making Multiple Copies of a Gene or Other DNA Segment
- Using Restriction Enzymes to Make a Recombinant DNA Plasmid
+ tnucleic acid hybridization(核酸雜交)
+ DNA定序:gDNA被切碎→從碎片中選300個鹼基對→用PCR大量複製碎片，其中一股的5'會被bead抓住→最終，會在bead上形成數萬個ssDNA的copy(會被用作模板股)→將bead放入井→DNA聚合酶和primer會與模板股的3'雜合→multiwell plate
+ sing Restriction Enzymes to Make a Recombinant DNA Plasmid
Amplifying DNA: The Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) and Its Use in DNA Cloning
Expressing Cloned Eukaryotic Genes
（46 行未修改）
基因體
Reading the Leaves from the tree of Life
-
-
-
- 20.1 The Human Genome Project
- fostered development of faster,
- less expensive sequencing
- techniques
-
-
-
-
- 20.2 Scientists use bioinformatics
- to analyze genomes and their
- functions
- Centralized Resources for Analyzing Genome Sequences
- Identifying Protein-Coding Genes and Understanding Their Functions
- Understanding Genes and Gene Expression at the Systems Level
- *Systems Biology
- *Application of Systems Biology to Medicine
- *
-
- 20.3 Genomes vary in size, number
- of genes, and gene density
- Genome Size
- Number of Genes
- Gene Density and Noncoding DNA
- 20.4 Multicellular eukaryotes have a
- lot of noncoding DNA and many
- multigene families
- Transposable Elements and Related Sequences
- *Movement of Transposons and Retrotransposons
- *Sequences Related to Transposable Elements
- Other Repetitive DNA, Including Simple Sequence DNA
- Genes and Multigene Families
+ 人類基因體計畫
+ whole-genome shotgun approach(全基因體散彈)
+ 將DNA切碎→在質體隨機的DNA片段在質體中被複製→片段被定序→將片段定序得到的資料，比對、組織成完整
+ *Metagenomics(總體基因體學):直接取得環境中所有遺傳物質
+ *gene annotation(基因註釋):利用生物資訊學方法和工具，對基因的功能進行高通量注釋
+ *蛋白質體學，與系統生物學有關
- 20.5 Duplication, rearrangement, and
- mutation of DNA contribute to
- genome evolution
- Duplication of Entire Chromosome Sets
- Alterations of Chromosome Structure
- Duplication and Divergence of Gene-Sized Regions of DNA
- *Evolution of Genes with Related Functions: The Human Globin Genes
- *Evolution of Genes with Novel Functions
- Rearrangements of Parts of Genes: Exon Duplication and Exon Shuffling
- How Transposable Elements Contribute to Genome Evolution
+ -多細胞真核生物，具有很多noncoding DNA，例如intron、調節基因、repetitive DNA 、pseudogene
+ *pseudogene:最初是功能對生物生存並非必要的基因。隨著突變的積累，出現編碼區提前出現終止密碼子、移碼突變等情況，逐漸變爲無功能的假基因
+ 可動遺傳因子
+ 1.DNA轉座子:利用cut-and-paste移動
+ 2.retrotransposon(反轉錄轉座子):利用RNA中間產物，進行copy-and-paste移動
+ -合成ssRNA中間物→反轉錄酶合成RNA的DNA互補股(第一個)→反轉錄酶再核成與第一個DNA互補的股，這就是可動的retrotransposon
+ -反轉錄病毒的複製週期，運用到以上的過程
+ *以上兩種都需要酵素transposase
- 20.6 Comparing genome sequences
- provides clues to evolution and
- development
- Comparing Genomes
- * Comparing Distantly Related Species
- *Comparing Closely Related Species
- *Comparing Genomes Within a Species
- Widespread Conservation of Developmental Genes Among Animals
- *
+ *simple sequence DNA(簡單重複序列):兩個或多個核苷酸重複排列，且不同的重複序列相鄰
+ -長度約2到10個鹼基對
+ -常見於非編碼的內含子中
+ *short tandem repeat=STR
+ *multigene families
+ *exon shuffling **evo-devo
+ *homeobox(同源框)-某些影響動物、真菌及植物發育的基因所擁有的一段DNA序列
+ Homeotic基因控制AP軸的發育
+ *Hox基因
+
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| 2019-07-11 01:16 – 01:44 | r40 – r586 | |
顯示 diff 遺傳學
- This pad text is synchronized as you type, so that everyone viewing this page sees the same text. This allows you to collaborate seamlessly on documents!
生命週期和有絲分裂
+ Variations on a theme
13.1 Offspring acquire genes from
parents by inheriting chromosomes
+ Inheritance of Genes
+ Comparison of Asexual and Sexual Reproduction
+
13.2 Fertilization and meiosis alternate
in sexual life cycles
+ Sets of Chromosomes in Human Cells
+ Behavior of Chromosome Sets in the Human Life Cycle
+ The Variety of Sexual Life Cycles
+
+
13.3 Meiosis reduces the number
of chromosome sets from
diploid to haploid
+ The Stages of Meiosis
+ Crossing Over and Synapsis During Prophase I
+ A Comparison of Mitosis and Meiosis
+
13.4 Genetic variation produced in
sexual life cycles contributes
to evolution
-
+ Origins of Genetic Variation Among Offspring
+ *Independent Assortment of Chromosomes
+ *Crossing Over
+ *Random Fertilization
+ The Evolutionary Significance of Genetic Variation Within Populations
+
孟德爾遺傳
- Mendel used the scientific
+ Drawing from the Deck of Genes
+ 14.1Mendel used the scientific
approach to identify two
laws of inheritance
+ Mendel’s Experimental, Quantitative Approach
+ The Law of Segregation
+ *Mendel’s Model
+ *Useful Genetic Vocabulary
+ *The Testcross
+ The Law of Independent Assortment
+
+
14.2 Probability laws govern
Mendelian inheritance
+ The Multiplication and Addition Rules Applied to Monohybrid Crosses
+ Solving Complex Genetics Problems with the Rules of Probability
+
+
14.3 Inheritance patterns are often
more complex than predicted
by simple Mendelian genetics
+ Extending Mendelian Genetics for a Single Gene
+ *Degrees of Dominance
+ *The Relationship Between Dominance and Phenotype
+ *Frequency of Dominant Alleles
+ *Multiple Alleles
+ *Pleiotropy
+ Extending Mendelian Genetics for Two or More Gene
+ *Epistasis
+ *Polygenic Inheritance
+ Nature and Nurture: The Environmental Impact on Phenotype
+ A Mendelian View of Heredity and Variation
+
+ *
+
+
+
14.4 Many human traits follow
Mendelian patterns of
inheritance
-
+ Pedigree Analysis
+ Recessively Inherited Disorders
+ *The Behavior of Recessive Alleles
+ *Cystic Fibrosis
+ *Sickle-Cell Disease: A Genetic Disorder with Evolutionary Implications
+ Dominantly Inherited Disorders
+ Multifactorial Disorders
+ Genetic Testing and Counseling
+ * Counseling Based on Mendelian Genetics and Probability Rules
+ *Tests for Identifying Carriers
+ *Fetal Testing
+ *Newborn Screening
+ *
染色體作為遺傳物質
- Morgan showed that Mendelian
+ Locating Genes Along Chromosomes
+ 15.1Morgan showed that Mendelian
inheritance has its physical basis
in the behavior of chromosomes:
scientific inquiry
+ Morgan’s Choice of Experimental Organism
+ Correlating Behavior of a Gene’s Alleles with Behavior of a Chromosome Pair
+
+
15.2 Sex-linked genes exhibit unique
patterns of inheritance
+ The Chromosomal Basis of Sex
+ Inheritance of X-Linked Genes
+ X Inactivation in Female Mammals
+
15.3 Linked genes tend to be inherited
together because they are located
near each other on the same
chromosome
+ How Linkage Affects Inheritance
+ Genetic Recombination and Linkage
+ *Recombination of Unlinked Genes: Independent Assortment of Chromosomes
+ *Recombination of Linked Genes: Crossing Over
+ *New Combinations of Alleles: Variation for Natural Selection
+ Mapping the Distance Between Genes Using Recombination Data: Scientific Inquiry
+ *
+
15.4 Alterations of chromosome
number or structure cause some
genetic disorders
+ Abnormal Chromosome number
+ Alterations of Chromosome Structure
+ Human Disorders Due to Chromosomal Alterations
+ *Down Syndrome (Trisomy 21)
+ *Aneuploidy of Sex Chromosomes
+ *Disorders Caused by Structurally Altered Chromosomes
+ *
+ *
+
+
15.5 Some inheritance patterns are
exceptions to standard Mendelian
inheritance
-
+ Genomic Imprinting
+ Inheritance of Organelle Genes
核酸
- DNA is the genetic material
+ Life’s operating Instructions
+ 16.1 DNA is the genetic material
+ The Search for the Genetic Material: Scientific Inquiry
+ Additional Evidence That DNA Is the Genetic Material
+ Building a Structural Model of DNA: Scientific Inquiry
+
16.2 Many proteins work together
in DNA replication and repair
+ The Basic Principle: Base Pairing to a Template Strand
+ DNA Replication: A Closer Look
+ *Getting Started
+ *Synthesizing a New DNA Strand
+ *Antiparallel Elongation
+ *The DNA Replication Complex
+ Proofreading and Repairing DNA
+ Evolutionary Significance of Altered DNA Nucleotides
+ Replicating the Ends of DNA Molecules
+
+
+
16.3 A chromosome consists of a
DNA molecule packed together
（2 行未修改）
基因表現
+ the Flow of Genetic Information
17.1 Genes specify proteins via
transcription and translation
+ Evidence from Studying Metabolic Defects
+ Nutritional Mutants in Neurospora: Scientific Inquiry
+ *The Products of Gene Expression: A Developing Story
+ Basic Principles of Transcription and Translation
+ The Genetic Code
+ * Codons: Triplets of Nucleotides
+ *Cracking the Code
+ *Evolution of the Genetic Code
+ *
+
+
17.2 Transcription is the DNA-directed
synthesis of RNA: a closer look
+ Molecular Components of Transcription
+ Synthesis of an RNA Transcript
+ *RNA Polymerase Binding and Initiation of Transcription
+ *Elongation of the RNA Strand
+ *Termination of Transcription
+ *
+ *
+
+
17.3 Eukaryotic cells modify RNA after
transcription
+ Alteration of mRNA Ends
+ Split Genes and RNA Splicing
+ *Ribozymes
+ *The Functional and Evolutionary Importance of Introns
+
+
+
17.4 Translation is the RNA-directed
synthesis of a polypeptide:
a closer look
+ Molecular Components of Translation
+ *The Structure and Function of Transfer RNA
+ *The Structure and Function of Ribosomes
+ Building a Polypeptide
+ *Ribosome Association and Initiation of Translation
+ *Elongation of the Polypeptide Chain
+ *Termination of Translation
+ Completing and Targeting the Functional Protein
+ * Protein Folding and Post-Translational Modifications
+ *Targeting Polypeptides to Specific Locations
+ Making Multiple Polypeptides in Bacteria and Eukaryotes
+
+
+
+
+
17.5 Mutations of one or a few
nucleotides can affect protein
structure and function
+ Types of Small-Scale Mutations
+ *Substitutions
+ *Insertions and Deletions
+ New Mutations and Mutagens
+ What Is a Gene? Revisiting the Question
+
+ 基因調控
+ Beauty in the eye of the Beholder
- 基因調控
18.1 Bacteria often respond
to environmental change
by regulating transcription
+ Operons: The Basic Concept
+ Repressible and Inducible Operons: Two Types of Negative Gene Regulation
+ Positive Gene Regulation
+
18.2 Eukaryotic gene expression
is regulated at many stages
+ Differential Gene Expression
+ Regulation of Chromatin Structure
+ *Histone Modifications and DNA Methylation
+ *Epigenetic Inheritance
+ Regulation of Transcription Initiation
+ *Organization of a Typical Eukaryotic Gene and Its Transcript
+ * The Roles of General and Specific Transcription Factors
+ *General Transcription Factors at the Promoter
+ *Enhancers and Specific Transcription Factors
+ *Combinatorial Control of Gene Activation
+ *Coordinately Controlled Genes in Eukaryotes
+ *Nuclear Architecture and Gene Expression
+ Mechanisms of Post-Transcriptional Regulation
+ *RNA Processing
+ *Initiation of Translation and mRNA Degradation
+ *Protein Processing and Degradation
+ *
+
+
18.3 Noncoding RNAs play multiple
roles in controlling gene expression
+ Effects on mRNAs by MicroRNAs and Small Interfering RNAs
+ Chromatin Remodeling and Effects on Transcription by ncRNAs
+ The Evolutionary Significance of Small ncRNAs
+
18.4 A program of differential gene
expression leads to the different
cell types in a multicellular
organism
+ A Genetic Program for Embryonic Development
+ Cytoplasmic Determinants and Inductive Signals
+ Sequential Regulation of Gene Expression During Cellular Differentiation
+ Pattern Formation: Setting Up the Body Plan
+ *The Life Cycle of Drosophila
+ *Genetic Analysis of Early Development: Scientific Inquiry
+ *Axis Establishment
+ *Bicoid: A Morphogen That Determines Head Structures
+ *Evolutionary Developmental Biology (“Evo-Devo”)
+ *
+ *
+
+
+
18.5 Cancer results from genetic
changes that affect cell cycle
- contro
-
+ control
+ Types of Genes Associated with Cancer
+ Interference with Normal Cell-Signaling Pathways
+ The Multistep Model of Cancer Development
+ Genomics, Cell Signaling, and Cancer
+ *Breast Cancer Subtypes
+ Inherited Predisposition and Environmental Factors Contributing to Cancer
+ The Role of Viruses in Cancer
+
+
DNA技術
+ the DnA toolbox
+
+
+
19.1 DNA sequencing and DNA
cloning are valuable tools
for genetic engineering
and biological inquiry
+ DNA Sequencing
+ Making Multiple Copies of a Gene or Other DNA Segment
+ Using Restriction Enzymes to Make a Recombinant DNA Plasmid
+ Amplifying DNA: The Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) and Its Use in DNA Cloning
+ Expressing Cloned Eukaryotic Genes
+ *Bacterial Expression Systems
+ *Eukaryotic DNA Cloning and Expression Systems
+ *Cross-Species Gene Expression and Evolutionary Ancestry
+
+
19.2 Biologists use DNA technology
to study gene expression
and function
+ Analyzing Gene Expression
+ *Studying the Expression of Single Genes
+ *Studying the Expression of Interacting Groups of Genes
+ Determining Gene Function
+ *Editing Genes and Genomes
+ *Other Methods for Studying Gene Function
+
+
19.3 Cloned organisms and stem cells
are useful for basic research
and other applications
+ Cloning Plants: Single-Cell Cultures
+ Cloning Animals: Nuclear Transplantation
+ *Reproductive Cloning of Mammals
+ *Faulty Gene Regulation in Cloned Animals Due to Epigenetic Differences
+ Stem Cells of Animals
+ * Embryonic and Adult Stem Cells
+ *Induced Pluripotent Stem (iPS) Cells
+ *
+
+
19.4 The practical applications of
DNA-based biotechnology affect
our lives in many ways
-
+ Medical Applications
+ *Diagnosis and Treatment of Diseases
+ *Human Gene Therapy and Gene Editing
+ *Pharmaceutical Products
+ *Synthesis of Small Molecules for Use as Drugs
+ *Protein Production in Cell Cultures
+ *Protein Production by “Pharm” Animals
+ Forensic Evidence and Genetic Profiles
+ Environmental Cleanup
+ Agricultural Applications
+ Safety and Ethical Questions Raised by DNA Technology
+
基因體
+ Reading the Leaves from the tree of Life
+
+
+
20.1 The Human Genome Project
fostered development of faster,
less expensive sequencing
techniques
+
+
+
+
20.2 Scientists use bioinformatics
to analyze genomes and their
functions
+ Centralized Resources for Analyzing Genome Sequences
+ Identifying Protein-Coding Genes and Understanding Their Functions
+ Understanding Genes and Gene Expression at the Systems Level
+ *Systems Biology
+ *Application of Systems Biology to Medicine
+ *
+
20.3 Genomes vary in size, number
of genes, and gene density
+ Genome Size
+ Number of Genes
+ Gene Density and Noncoding DNA
+
20.4 Multicellular eukaryotes have a
lot of noncoding DNA and many
multigene families
+ Transposable Elements and Related Sequences
+ *Movement of Transposons and Retrotransposons
+ *Sequences Related to Transposable Elements
+ Other Repetitive DNA, Including Simple Sequence DNA
+ Genes and Multigene Families
+
+
20.5 Duplication, rearrangement, and
mutation of DNA contribute to
genome evolution
+ Duplication of Entire Chromosome Sets
+ Alterations of Chromosome Structure
+ Duplication and Divergence of Gene-Sized Regions of DNA
+ *Evolution of Genes with Related Functions: The Human Globin Genes
+ *Evolution of Genes with Novel Functions
+ Rearrangements of Parts of Genes: Exon Duplication and Exon Shuffling
+ How Transposable Elements Contribute to Genome Evolution
+
+
+
20.6 Comparing genome sequences
provides clues to evolution and
- developmen
-
+ development
+ Comparing Genomes
+ * Comparing Distantly Related Species
+ *Comparing Closely Related Species
+ *Comparing Genomes Within a Species
+ Widespread Conservation of Developmental Genes Among Animals
+ *
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| 2019-07-10 22:10 – 22:11 | r27 – r39 | |
顯示 diff（68 行未修改）
17.5 Mutations of one or a few
nucleotides can affect protein
- structure and function
+ structure and function
+
+
+
+
+ 基因調控
+ 18.1 Bacteria often respond
+ to environmental change
+ by regulating transcription
+ 18.2 Eukaryotic gene expression
+ is regulated at many stages
+ 18.3 Noncoding RNAs play multiple
+ roles in controlling gene expression
+ 18.4 A program of differential gene
+ expression leads to the different
+ cell types in a multicellular
+ organism
+ 18.5 Cancer results from genetic
+ changes that affect cell cycle
+ contro
+
+
+
+ DNA技術
+ 19.1 DNA sequencing and DNA
+ cloning are valuable tools
+ for genetic engineering
+ and biological inquiry
+ 19.2 Biologists use DNA technology
+ to study gene expression
+ and function
+ 19.3 Cloned organisms and stem cells
+ are useful for basic research
+ and other applications
+ 19.4 The practical applications of
+ DNA-based biotechnology affect
+ our lives in many ways
+
+
+
+ 基因體
+ 20.1 The Human Genome Project
+ fostered development of faster,
+ less expensive sequencing
+ techniques
+ 20.2 Scientists use bioinformatics
+ to analyze genomes and their
+ functions
+ 20.3 Genomes vary in size, number
+ of genes, and gene density
+ 20.4 Multicellular eukaryotes have a
+ lot of noncoding DNA and many
+ multigene families
+ 20.5 Duplication, rearrangement, and
+ mutation of DNA contribute to
+ genome evolution
+ 20.6 Comparing genome sequences
+ provides clues to evolution and
+ developmen
+
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| 2019-07-10 22:10 | r26 | |
顯示 diff（71 行未修改）
|
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| 2019-07-10 22:09 – 22:10 | r1 – r25 | |
顯示 diff- Untitled
+ 遺傳學
This pad text is synchronized as you type, so that everyone viewing this page sees the same text. This allows you to collaborate seamlessly on documents!
+ 生命週期和有絲分裂
+ 13.1 Offspring acquire genes from
+ parents by inheriting chromosomes
+ 13.2 Fertilization and meiosis alternate
+ in sexual life cycles
+ 13.3 Meiosis reduces the number
+ of chromosome sets from
+ diploid to haploid
+ 13.4 Genetic variation produced in
+ sexual life cycles contributes
+ to evolution
+
+
+ 孟德爾遺傳
+ Mendel used the scientific
+ approach to identify two
+ laws of inheritance
+ 14.2 Probability laws govern
+ Mendelian inheritance
+ 14.3 Inheritance patterns are often
+ more complex than predicted
+ by simple Mendelian genetics
+ 14.4 Many human traits follow
+ Mendelian patterns of
+ inheritance
+
+
+ 染色體作為遺傳物質
+ Morgan showed that Mendelian
+ inheritance has its physical basis
+ in the behavior of chromosomes:
+ scientific inquiry
+ 15.2 Sex-linked genes exhibit unique
+ patterns of inheritance
+ 15.3 Linked genes tend to be inherited
+ together because they are located
+ near each other on the same
+ chromosome
+ 15.4 Alterations of chromosome
+ number or structure cause some
+ genetic disorders
+ 15.5 Some inheritance patterns are
+ exceptions to standard Mendelian
+ inheritance
+
+
+ 核酸
+ DNA is the genetic material
+ 16.2 Many proteins work together
+ in DNA replication and repair
+ 16.3 A chromosome consists of a
+ DNA molecule packed together
+ with proteins
+
+
+ 基因表現
+ 17.1 Genes specify proteins via
+ transcription and translation
+ 17.2 Transcription is the DNA-directed
+ synthesis of RNA: a closer look
+ 17.3 Eukaryotic cells modify RNA after
+ transcription
+ 17.4 Translation is the RNA-directed
+ synthesis of a polypeptide:
+ a closer look
+ 17.5 Mutations of one or a few
+ nucleotides can affect protein
+ structure and function
|
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| 2019-07-10 22:09 | r0 | |
顯示 diff+ Untitled
+ This pad text is synchronized as you type, so that everyone viewing this page sees the same text. This allows you to collaborate seamlessly on documents!
|
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