動物學

 

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C6407910動物結構

Diverse Forms(天擇跟適應所導致), Common Challenges

天擇favors those variations in a population that

increase relative fitness

例子desert ant (genus Cataglyphis)

stilt-like legs are disproportionately long 可以降溫、跑很快

 

 

 

 

anatomy 解剖

physiology 生理

 

40.1 形式和功能緊密相關

• Evolution of Animal Size and Shape

解剖構造受物理定律限制

convergent evolution導致fusiform, meaning tapered on both ends 以減少阻力

限制最大尺寸

thickerskeletons are required to maintain adequate support

affects

internal skeletons, such as those of vertebrates,

as well as external skeletons, such as those of insects and other arthropods

 

肌肉比例增加，以維持運動

 

• Exchange with the Environment
• Hierarchical Organization of Body Plans
• Coordination and Control

 

 

 

 

 

 

40.2 回饋抑制維持內部環境

• Regulating and Conforming

 

Homeostasis

Mechanisms of Homeostasis

Feedback Control in Homeostasis

Alterations in Homeostasis

 

 

 

 

 

40.3 用於體溫調節的穩態過程

Endothermy and Ectothermy

Variation in Body Temperature

Balancing Heat Loss and Gain

• Insulation
• Circulatory Adaptations
• Cooling by Evaporative Heat Loss
• Behavioral Responses
• Adjusting Metabolic Heat Production

Acclimatization in Thermoregulation

Physiological Thermostats and Fever

 

 

 

40.4 能量需求與動物大小，活動和環境有關

Energy Allocation and Use

Quantifying Energy Use

Minimum Metabolic Rate and Thermoregulation

Influences on Metabolic Rate

• Size and Metabolic Rate
• Activity and Metabolic Rate

Torpor and Energy Conservation

 

Life Challenges and Solutions in Plants and Animals

 

 

 

 

 

 

化學訊號

the Body’s Long-Distance Regulators

41.1 Hormones and other signaling molecules bind to target receptors, triggering specific response pathways

 

Intercellular Communication

• Endocrine Signaling
• Paracrine and Autocrine Signaling
• Synaptic and Neuroendocrine Signaling
• Signaling by Pheromones

Chemical Classes of Local Regulators and Hormones

• Classes of Local Regulators
• Classes of Hormones

Cellular Hormone Response Pathways

• Response Pathway for Water-Soluble Hormones
• Response Pathway for Lipid-Soluble Hormones
• Multiple Responses to a Single Hormone

Endocrine Tissues and Organs

 

 

 

 

41.2 賀爾蒙的回饋抑制、與神經系統合作

Simple Endocrine Pathways

Simple Neuroendocrine Pathways

Feedback Regulation

Coordination of the Endocrine and Nervous Systems

• Invertebrates
• Vertebrates
• Anterior Pituitary Hormones
• Posterior Pituitary Hormones

Thyroid Regulation: A Hormone Cascade Pathway

• Disorders of Thyroid Function and Regulation

Hormonal Regulation of Growth

 

 

41.3 Endocrine glands respond to diverse stimuli in regulating homeostasis, development,

and behavior

Parathyroid Hormone and vitamin D: Control of Blood Calcium

Adrenal Hormones: Response to Stress

• The Role of the Adrenal Medulla
• Epinephrine’s multiple Effects: A Closer Look
• The Role of the Adrenal Cortex

Sex Hormones

• Endocrine Disruptors

Hormones and Biological Rhythms

Evolution of Hormone Function

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

消化

The Need to Feed

42.1 An animal’s diet must supply chemical energy, organic building blocks, and essential nutrients

Essential Nutrients

• Essential Amino Acids
• Vitamins
• Minerals

Dietary Deficiencies

• Deficiencies in Essential Nutrients
• Undernourishment

Assessing Nutritional Needs

 

42.2 Food processing involves ingestion, digestion, absorption,

and elimination

Four Main Feeding Mechanisms of Animals

Digestive Compartments

• Intracellular Digestion
• Extracellular Digestion

 

 

 

42.3 Organs specialized for sequential

stages of food processing form

the mammalian digestive system

 

The Oral Cavity, Pharynx, and Esophagus

Digestion in the Stomach

• Chemical Digestion in the Stomach
• Stomach Dynamics

Digestion in the Small Intestine

Absorption in the Small Intestine

Processing in the Large Intestine

 

 

42.4 Evolutionary adaptations of

vertebrate digestive systems

correlate with diet

Dental Adaptations

Stomach and Intestinal Adaptations

Mutualistic Adaptations

• Mutualistic Adaptations in Herbivores

 

 

 

42.5 Feedback circuits regulate

digestion, energy storage,

and appetite

Regulation of Digestion

Regulation of Energy Storage

• Glucose Homeostasis
• Diabetes Mellitus
• Type 1 Diabetes
• Type 2 Diabetes

Regulation of Appetite and Consumption

 

 

 

 

 

運輸

trading places

43.1 Circulatory systems link exchange surfaces with cells throughout the body

Gastrovascular Cavities

Open and Closed Circulatory Systems

Organization of Vertebrate Circulatory Systems

• Single Circulation
• Double Circulation
• Evolutionary Variation in Double Circulation

 

 

43.2 Coordinated cycles of heart

contraction drive double

circulation in mammals

Mammalian Circulation

The Mammalian Heart: A Closer Look

Maintaining the Heart’s Rhythmic Beat

 

 

 

 

 

43.3 Patterns of blood pressure and

flow reflect the structure and

arrangement of blood vessels

Blood Vessel Structure and Function

Blood Flow Velocity

Blood Pressure

• Changes in Blood Pressure During the Cardiac Cycle
• Regulation of Blood Pressure
• Blood Pressure and Gravity

Capillary Function

Fluid Return by the Lymphatic System

 

 

 

43.4 Blood components function in

exchange, transport, and defense

Blood Composition and Function

• Plasma
• Cellular Element
• Erythrocytes
• Leukocytes
• Platelets
• Stem Cells and the Replacement of Cellular Elements
• Blood Clotting

Cardiovascular Disease

• Atherosclerosis, Heart Attacks, and Stroke
• Risk Factors and Treatment of Cardiovascular Disease

 

 

 

43.5 Gas exchange occurs across

specialized respiratory surfaces

Partial Pressure Gradients in Gas Exchange

Respiratory Media

Respiratory Surfaces

Gills in Aquatic Animals

Tracheal Systems in Insects

Lungs

• Mammalian Respiratory Systems: A Closer Look

 

 

43.6 Breathing ventilates the lungs

How an Amphibian Breathes

How a Bird Breathes

How a Mammal Breathes

Control of Breathing in Humans

 

 

 

 

43.7 Adaptations for gas exchange

include pigments that bind

and transport gase

Coordination of Circulation and Gas Exchange

Respiratory Pigments

• Carbon Dioxide Transport

Respiratory Adaptations of Diving Mammals

 

 

 

 

 

 

外分泌

A Balancing Act

44.1 Osmoregulation balances

the uptake and loss of water

and solutes

Osmosis and Osmolarity

Osmoregulatory Challenges and Mechanisms

• Marine Animals
• Freshwater Animals
• Animals That Live in Temporary Waters
• Land Animals

Energetics of Osmoregulation

Transport Epithelia in Osmoregulation

 

 

 

 

 

 

44.2 An animal’s nitrogenous wastes

reflect its phylogeny and habitat

forms of nitrogenous Waste

• Ammonia
• Urea
• Uric Acid

The influence of Evolution and Environment on nitrogenous Wastes

 

 

 

 

44.3 Diverse excretory systems are

variations on a tubular theme

Excretory Processes

Survey of Excretory Systems

• Protonephridia
• Metanephridia
• Malpighian Tubules
• Kidneys

 

 

44.4 The nephron is organized for

stepwise processing of blood

filtrate

from Blood filtrate to Urine: A Closer Look

Solute Gradients and Water Conservation

• Concentrating Urine in the Mammalian Kidney

Adaptations of the Vertebrate kidney to Diverse Environments

• Mammals
• Case Study: Kidney Function in the Vampire Bat
• Birds and Other Reptiles
• Freshwater Fishes and Amphibians
• Marine Bony Fishes

ion Movement and Gradients

 

 

 

 

 

 

44.5 Hormonal circuits link kidney

function, water balance, and

blood pressure

Homeostatic Regulation of the kidney

• Antidiuretic Hormone
• The Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System
• Coordinated Regulation of Salt and Water Balance

 

 

 

 

 

 

繁殖

Let Me Count the Ways

45.1 Both asexual and sexual

reproduction occur in the

animal kingdom

Mechanisms of Asexual Reproduction

Variation in Patterns of Sexual Reproduction

Reproductive Cycles

Sexual Reproduction: An Evolutionary Enigma

 

 

45.2 Fertilization depends on

mechanisms that bring together

sperm and eggs of the same

species

Ensuring the Survival of Offspring

Gamete Production and Delivery

 

 

 

 

45.3 Reproductive organs produce

and transport gametes

Human Male Reproductive Anatomy

• Testes
• Ducts
• Accessory Glands
• Penis

Human Female Reproductive Anatomy

• Ovaries
• Oviducts and Uterus
• Vagina and Vulva
• Mammary Glands

Gametogenesis

• Spermatogenesis
• Oogenesis

 

 

 

45.4 The interplay of tropic and sex

hormones regulates reproduction

in mammals

Hormonal Control of the Male Reproductive System

Hormonal Control of Female Reproductive Cycles

• The Ovarian Cycle
• The Uterine (Menstrual) Cycle
• Menopause
• Menstrual Versus Estrous Cycles

Human Sexual Response

 

 

 

 

45.5 In placental mammals, an embryo

develops fully within the mother’s

uterus

Conception, Embryonic Development, and Birth

• First Trimester
• Second and Third Trimesters

Maternal Immune Tolerance of the Embryo and Fetus

Contraception and Abortion

Modern Reproductive Technologies

• Detecting Disorders During Pregnancy
• Infertility and In Vitro Fertilization

 

 

 

 

發育

A Body-Building plan

46.1 Fertilization and cleavage initiate

embryonic development

Fertilization

• The Acrosomal Reaction
• The Cortical Reaction
• Egg Activation
• Fertilization in Mammals

Cleavage

• Cleavage Pattern in Frogs
• Cleavage Patterns in Other Animals

46.2 Morphogenesis in animals

involves specific changes in cell

shape, position, and survival

Gastrulation

• Gastrulation in Frogs
• Gastrulation in Chicks
• Gastrulation in Humans

Developmental Adaptations of Amniotes

Organogenesis

• Neurulation
• Cell Migration in Organogenesis
• Organogenesis in Chicks and Insects

The Cytoskeleton in Morphogenesis

• Cell Shape Changes in Morphogenesis
• Cell Migration in Morphogenesis
• Programmed Cell Death

 

 

 

46.3 Cytoplasmic determinants

and inductive signals regulate

cell fate

Fate Mapping

Axis Formation

• Axis Formation in the Frog
• Axis Formation in Birds, Mammals, and Insects

Restricting Developmental Potential

Cell Fate Determination and Pattern Formation by Inductive Signals

• The “Organizer” of Spemann and Mangold
• Formation of the Vertebrate Limb

Cilia and Cell Fate

 

 

 

 

 

 

防禦

Recognition and Response

47.1 In innate immunity, recognition

and response rely on traits

common to groups of pathogens

Innate Immunity of Invertebrates

Innate Immunity of Vertebrates

• Barrier Defenses
• Cellular Innate Defenses
• Antimicrobial Peptides and Proteins
• Inflammatory Response

Evasion of Innate Immunity by Pathogens

 

 

 

 

47.2 In adaptive immunity, receptors

provide pathogen-specific

recognition

Antigen Recognition by B Cells and Antibodies

Antigen Recognition by T Cells

B Cell and T Cell Development

• Generation of B Cell and T Cell Diversity
• Origin of Self-Tolerance
• Proliferation of B Cells and T Cells
• Immunological Memory

 

 

 

47.3 Adaptive immunity defends

against infection of body fluids

and body cells

Helper T Cells: Activating Adaptive Immunity

B Cells and Antibodies: A Response to Extracellular Pathogens

• Activation of B Cells
• Antibody Function

Cytotoxic T Cells: A Response to Infected Host Cells

Summary of the Humoral and Cell-Mediated Immune Responses

Immunization

Active and Passive Immunity

Antibodies as Tools

Immune Rejection

• Blood Groups

 

 

 

 

47.4 Disruptions in immune system

function can elicit or exacerbate

disease

Exaggerated, Self-Directed, and Diminished Immune Responses

• Allergies
• Autoimmune Diseases
• Exertion, Stress, and the Immune System
• Immunodeficiency Diseases

Evolutionary Adaptations of Pathogens That Underlie Immune System Avoidance

• Antigenic Variation
• Latency
• Attack on the Immune System: HIV

Cancer and Immunity

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

電訊號

Lines of Communication

48.1 Neuron structure and

organization reflect function

in information transfer

Neuron Structure and Function

Introduction to Information Processing

 

 

48.2 Ion pumps and ion channels

establish the resting potential

of a neuron

Formation of the Resting Potential

Modeling the Resting Potential

 

 

 

48.3 Action potentials are the signals

conducted by axons

Hyperpolarization and Depolarization

Graded Potentials and Action Potentials

Generation of Action Potentials: A Closer Look

Conduction of Action Potentials

• Evolutionary Adaptations of Axon Structure

 

 

 

48.4 Neurons communicate with

other cells at synapses

Generation of Postsynaptic Potentials

Summation of Postsynaptic Potentials

Termination of Neurotransmitter Signaling

Modulated Signaling at Synapses

Neurotransmitters

• Acetylcholine
• Amino Acids
• Biogenic Amines
• Neuropeptides
• Gases

 

 

 

 

神經調控

Command and Control Center

49.1 Nervous systems consist

of circuits of neurons and

supporting cells

Glia

Organization of the Vertebrate Nervous System

The Peripheral Nervous System

 

 

 

 

 

 

49.2 The vertebrate brain is regionally

specialized

Arousal and Sleep

Biological Clock Regulation

Emotions

functional imaging of the Brain

 

 

 

 

49.3 The cerebral cortex controls

voluntary movement and

cognitive functions

information Processing

language and Speech

lateralization of Cortical function

frontal lobe function

Evolution of Cognition in Vertebrates

 

 

 

 

49.4 Changes in synaptic connections

underlie memory and learning

Neuronal Plasticity

Memory and learning

long-Term Potentiation

 

 

 

 

 

49.5 Many nervous system disorders

can now be explained in

molecular terms

Schizophrenia

Depression

The Brain’s Reward System and Drug Addiction

Alzheimer’s Disease

Parkinson’s Disease

future Directions

 

 

 

 

 

 

感覺和運動

sense and sensibility

50.1 Sensory receptors transduce

stimulus energy and transmit

signals to the central nervous

system

 

Sensory Reception and Transduction

Transmission

Perception

Amplification and Adaptation

Types of Sensory Receptors

• Mechanoreceptors
• Chemoreceptors
• Electromagnetic Receptors
• Thermoreceptors
• Pain Receptors

 

50.2 In hearing and equilibrium,

mechanoreceptors detect moving

fluid or settling particles

Sensing of Gravity and Sound in Invertebrates

Hearing and Equilibrium in Mammals

• Hearing
• Equilibrium

Hearing and Equilibrium in Other Vertebrates

 

 

 

 

50.3 The diverse visual receptors

of animals depend on lightabsorbing pigments

Evolution of Visual Perception

• Light-Detecting Organs
• Compound Eyes
• Single-Lens Eyes

The Vertebrate Visual System

• Sensory Transduction in the Eye
• Processing of Visual Information in the Retina
• Processing of Visual Information in the Brain
• Color Vision
• The Visual Field

 

 

 

50.4 The senses of taste and smell

rely on similar sets of sensory

receptors

Taste in Mammals

Smell in Humans

 

 

 

 

 

 

50.5 The physical interaction of

protein filaments is required

for muscle function

Vertebrate Skeletal Muscle

• The Sliding-Filament Model of Muscle Contraction
• The Role of Calcium and Regulatory Proteins
• Nervous Control of Muscle Tension
• Types of Skeletal Muscle Fibers
• Oxidative and Glycolytic Fibers
• Fast-Twitch and Slow-Twitch Fibers

Other Types of Muscle

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

50.6 Skeletal systems transform

muscle contraction into

locomotion

 

Types of Skeletal Systems

• Hydrostatic Skeletons
• Exoskeletons
• Endoskeletons

Types of Locomotion

• Locomotion on Land
• Swimming
• Flying