各式各樣的生物
病毒
A Borrowed Life
26.1 A virus consists of a nucleic acid
surrounded by a protein coat
The Discovery of Viruses: Scientific Inquiry
Structure of Viruses
- Viral Genomes
- Capsids and Envelopes
26.2 Viruses replicate only in host
cells
General Features of Viral Replicative Cycles
Replicative Cycles of Phages
- The Lytic Cycle
- The Lysogenic Cycle
- Bacterial Defenses Against Phages
Replicative Cycles of Animal Viruses
- Viral Envelopes
- Viral Genetic Material
Evolution of Viruses
26.3 Viruses and prions are formidable
pathogens in animals and plants
Viral Diseases in Animals
Emerging Viruses
Viral Diseases in Plants
Prions: Proteins as Infectious Agents
原核
Masters of Adaptation
27.1 Structural and functional
adaptations contribute to
prokaryotic success
Cell-Surface Structures
Motility
- Evolutionary Origins of Bacterial Flagella
Internal Organization and DNA
Reproduction
27.2 Rapid reproduction, mutation,
and genetic recombination
promote genetic diversity in
prokaryotes
Rapid Reproduction and Mutation
Genetic Recombination
- Transformation and Transduction
- Conjugation and Plasmids
- The F Factor in the Chromosome
- R Plasmids and Antibiotic Resistance
27.3 Diverse nutritional and metabolic
adaptations have evolved in
prokaryotes
The Role of Oxygen in Metabolism
Nitrogen Metabolism
Metabolic Cooperation
27.4 Prokaryotes have radiated into
a diverse set of lineages
An Overview of Prokaryotic Diversity
Bacteria
Archaea
27.5 Prokaryotes play crucial roles
in the biosphere
Chemical Recycling
Ecological Interactions
27.6 Prokaryotes have both beneficial
and harmful impacts on humans
Mutualistic Bacteria
Pathogenic Bacteria
Prokaryotes in Research and Technology
真核
Living small
28.1 Most eukaryotes are single-celled
organisms
Structural and Functional Diversity in Protists
Four Supergroups of Eukaryotes
Endosymbiosis in Eukaryotic Evolution
Plastid Evolution: A Closer Look
28.2 Excavates include protists with
modified mitochondria and
protists with unique flagella
Diplomonads and Parabasalids
Euglenozoans
- Kinetoplastids
- Euglenids
28.3 SAR is a highly diverse group
of protists defined by DNA
similarities
Stramenopiles
- Diatoms
- Golden Algae
- Brown Algae
- Alternation of Generations
Alveolates
- Dinoflagellates
- Apicomplexans
- Ciliates
Rhizarians
- Radiolarians
- Forams
- Cercozoans
28.4 Red algae and green algae are
the closest relatives of plants
Red Algae
Green Algae
28.5 Unikonts include protists that
are closely related to fungi
and animals
Amoebozoans
- Slime Molds
- Plasmodial Slime Molds
- Cellular Slime Molds
- Tubulinids
- Entamoebas
Opisthokonts
28.6 Protists play key roles in
ecological communities
Symbiotic Protists
Photosynthetic Protists
nonvascular and seedless Vascular plants
29.1 Plants evolved from green algae
Morphological and Molecular Evidence
Adaptations Enabling the Move to Land
Derived Traits of Plants
The Origin and Diversification of Plants
29.2 Mosses and other nonvascular
plants have life cycles dominated
by gametophytes
Bryophyte Gametophytes
Bryophyte Sporophytes
The Ecological and Economic Importance of Mosses
29.3 Ferns and other seedless vascular
plants were the first plants
to grow tall
Origins and Traits of Vascular Plants
- Life Cycles with Dominant Sporophytes
- Transport in Xylem and Phloem
- Evolution of Roots
- Evolution of Leaves
- Sporophylls and Spore Variations
Classification of Seedless Vascular Plants
- Phylum Lycophyta: Club Mosses, Spikemosses, and Quillworts
- Phylum Monilophyta: Ferns, Horsetails, and Whisk Ferns and Relatives
The Significance of Seedless Vascular Plants
種子植物
transforming the World
The Greening of Earth
30.1 Seeds and pollen grains are key
adaptations for life on land
Advantages of Reduced Gametophytes
Heterospory: The Rule Among Seed Plants
Ovules and Production of Eggs
Pollen and Production of Sperm
The Evolutionary Advantage of Seeds
30.2 Gymnosperms bear “naked”
seeds, typically on cones
The life Cycle of a Pine
Early Seed Plants and the Rise of Gymnosperms
Gymnosperm Diversity
30.3 The reproductive adaptations
of angiosperms include flowers
and fruits
Characteristics of Angiosperms
- Flowers
- Fruits
- The Angiosperm Life Cycle
Angiosperm Evolution
- Fossil Angiosperms
- Angiosperm Phylogeny
- Evolutionary Links with Animals
Angiosperm Diversity
30.4 Human welfare depends on seed
plants
Products from Seed Plants
Threats to Plant Diversity
真菌
Hidden networks
31.1 Fungi are heterotrophs that feed
by absorption
Nutrition and Ecology
Body Structure
Specialized Hyphae in Mycorrhizal Fungi
31.2 Fungi produce spores through
sexual or asexual life cycles
Sexual Reproduction
Asexual Reproduction
31.3 The ancestor of fungi was an
aquatic, single-celled, flagellated
protist
The Origin of Fungi
Basal Fungal Groups
The Move to land
31.4 Fungi have radiated into a diverse
set of lineages
Chytrids
Zygomycetes
Glomeromycetes
Ascomycetes
Basidiomycetes
31.5 Fungi play key roles in nutrient
cycling, ecological interactions,
and human welfare
Fungi as Decomposers
Fungi as Mutualists
- Fungus-Plant Mutualisms
- Fungus-Animal Mutualisms
- Lichens
Fungi as Parasites
Practical Uses of Fungi
動物
A Kingdom of Consumers
32.1 Animals are multicellular,
heterotrophic eukaryotes with
tissues that develop from
embryonic layers
Nutritional Mode
Cell Structure and Specialization
Reproduction and Development
32.2 The history of animals spans
more than half a billion years
Steps in the Origin of Multicellular Animals
Neoproterozoic Era (1 Billion–541 Million Years Ago)
Paleozoic Era (541–252 Million Years Ago)
Mesozoic Era (252–66 Million Years Ago)
Cenozoic Era (66 Million Years Ago to the Present)
32.3 Animals can be characterized
by “body plans”
Symmetry
Tissues
Body Cavities
Protostome and Deuterostome Development
- Cleavage
- Coelom Formation
- Fate of the Blastopore
32.4 Views of animal phylogeny
continue to be shaped by new
molecular and morphological data
The Diversification of Animals
future Directions in Animal Systematics
無脊椎
A Dragon Without a Backbone
33.1 Sponges are basal animals that
lack tissues
33.2 Cnidarians are an ancient phylum
of eumetazoans
Medusozoans
Anthozoans
33.3 Lophotrochozoans, a clade
identified by molecular data,
have the widest range of animal
body forms
Flatworms
- Free-Living Species
- Parasitic Species
- Trematodes
- Tapeworms
Maximizing Surface Area
Rotifers and Acanthocephalans
- Rotifers
- Acanthocephalans
Lophophorates: Ectoprocts and Brachiopods
Molluscs
- Chitons
- Gastropods
- Bivalves
- Cephalopods
- Protecting Freshwater and Terrestrial Molluscs
Annelids
- Errantians
- Sedentarians
- Leeches
- Earthworms
33.4 Ecdysozoans are the most
species-rich animal group
nematodes
Arthropods
- Arthropod Origins
- General Characteristics of Arthropods
- Chelicerates
- Myriapods
- Pancrustaceans
- Crustaceans
- Insects I
33.5 Echinoderms and chordates
are deuterostomes
Echinoderms
- Asteroidea: Sea Stars and Sea Daisies
- Ophiuroidea: Brittle Stars
- Echinoidea: Sea Urchins and Sand Dollars
- Crinoidea: Sea Lilies and Feather Stars
- Holothuroidea: Sea Cucumbers
Chordates
脊椎
Half a Billion years of Backbones
34.1 Chordates have a notochord
and a dorsal, hollow nerve cord
Derived Characters of Chordates
- Notochord
- Dorsal, Hollow Nerve Cord
- Pharyngeal Slits or Clefts
- Muscular, Post-Anal Tail
Lancelets
Tunicates
Early Chordate Evolution
34.2 Vertebrates are chordates that
have a backbone
Derived Characters of Vertebrates
Hagfishes and Lampreys
- Hagfishes
- Lampreys
Early Vertebrate Evolution
34.3 Gnathostomes are vertebrates
that have jaws
Derived Characters of Gnathostomes
Fossil Gnathostomes
Chondrichthyans (Sharks, Rays,and Their Relatives)
Ray-Finned Fishes and Lobe-Fins
- Ray-Finned Fishes
- Lobe-Fins
34.4 Tetrapods are gnathostomes
that have limbs
Derived Characters of Tetrapods
The Origin of Tetrapods
Amphibians
- Salamanders
- Frogs
- Caecilians
- Lifestyle and Ecology of Amphibians
34.5 Amniotes are tetrapods that
have a terrestrially adapted egg
Derived Characters of Amniotes
Early Amniotes
Reptiles
- The Origin and Evolutionary Radiation of Reptiles
- Lepidosaurs
- Turtles
- Crocodilians
Birds
- The Origin of birds
- Living birds
34.6 Mammals are amniotes that
have hair and produce milk
Derived Characters of Mammals
Early Evolution of Mammals
Monotremes
Marsupials
Eutherians (Placental Mammals)
- Primates
- Derived Characters of Primates
- Living Primates
34.7 Humans are mammals that
have a large brain and bipedal
locomotion
Derived Characters of Humans
The Earliest Hominins
Australopiths
bipedalism
Tool Use
Early Homo
neanderthals
Homo sapiens